Rulers - Ancient History: Egypt

At the pinnacle of Ancient Egypt’s power structure were the ruling dynastic families, each of whom were led by a sequence of pharaohs. (These dynasties are comparable to Medieval Western European royal houses.) Each dynasty ruled in turn before being somehow either replaced or overthrown by another dynasty. Most often, each dynasty was internally bound together by familial ties, both blood- and marriage-related, although in several cases (usually in the absence or unsuitability of direct heirs) dynasties were formed on the basis of shared residency within the fortified royal compound. Despite these close ties, however, internal dynastic conflicts erupted rather often; disputes frequently arose over the line of succession and physical violence (including assassination) was not uncommon.

Menes was one of the earliest, possibly the earliest Pharaohs in unified Egyptian history. Most historians credit Menes with uniting Upper and Lower Egypt and founding the First Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Other historians disagree with this hypothesis though and instead credit Narmer with founding the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

It is impossible to fully understand the leaders of Ancient Egypt without first comprehending the crucial relationship that existed between these pharaohs and the Egyptian deities. The pharaohs’ role as the nation’s top-ranking political figure was deeply intertwined with religious beliefs. Each pharaoh was believed to be the son of the sun god Ra, who endowed each ruler with various divine abilities and charged his royal offspring with preserving the balance between the Egyptians and the entire divine pantheon. As such, the pharaohs were revered both politically and religiously; for a citizen of Ancient Egypt, to oppose a pharaoh was not only to oppose one’s political ruler but also involved challenging the child of a greatly powerful deity.

The Third and Fourth dynasties are considered to be periods of relative peace and prosperity in the history of ancient Egypt. The Third Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Old Kingdom and came to power in the 27th century B.C.E. This period of time is marked by a strong, centralized government under the absolute authority of the Pharaohs and a series of successful military campaigns against weaker neighboring states.

Pepi II is the last notable ruler of the Sixth Dynasty (the last ruling dynasty of the Old Kingdom). Pepi II’s rule was marked by the steady decline of his authority and the power of the Egyptian state. Pepi II is often remembered in popular history for the notable length of his reign. He was said to have assumed the throne as a small child and reigned for more than ninety years.

Khufu is one of the most famous Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom period of Egyptian history. The Old Kingdom began in the 27th century BCE and lasted until the 22nd century BCE. Khufu is most famous for ordering the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza to serve as his burial tomb. Most of what we know about Khufu comes from historians writing more than two thousand years after he died and is therefore unreliable.

The Third Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Old Kingdom. The Third Dynasty came to power in the 27th century BCE under the authority of Djoser. The Old Kingdom lasted from the rule of the Third Dynasty to the rule of the Sixth Dynasty in the 22nd century BCE.

The three pyramids at Giza were constructed during the Old Kingdom and housed the remains of Menkaure, Khafre, and Khufu. Sahura did not have a funerary monument in this complex.

The first pyramid was built during the reign of King Djoser, during the third dynasty. The architect responsible for building the pyramid of Djoser was Imhotep. Such was Imhotep’s renown and influence that he became the subject of cult worship in the years after his death. Imhotep is one of the few ancient Egyptians to have achieved such renown without having been a ruler.

The First Intermediate Period of Egyptian history began with the decline of the Old Kingdom in the 22nd century BCE. During this period, authority was divided between two competing Egyptian states - one dynasty based out of Heracleopolis and another based out of Thebes. The First Intermediate Period begins with the Seventh Dynasty and lasts until part way through the rule of the Eleventh Dynasty.

Amenemhat I became ruler of Egypt, along with his wife Neferitatjenen, in 1991 BCE and ruled until he was assassinated in 1962 BCE.

Mentuhotep I is generally credited with reunifying Egypt under the Eleventh Dynasty, and thus beginning the Middle Kingdom period of ancient Egyptian history. Mentuhotep I ruled over Upper Egypt from his capital city of Thebes during the waning years of the First Intermediate Period. He is usually credited with leading the conquest of the Heracleopolis Egyptians and reuniting Egypt.

Senusret III was one of the most powerful and significant ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty in ancient Egypt. He ruled from approximately 1878 to 1840 BCE, during the height of the power of the Middle Kingdom. Senusret III carried out many successful military campaigns and expanded Egyptian influence deep into Nubia.

Amenemhat I was the first ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty. He ruled in the 20th century BCE and his reign marks the beginning of a period of relative prosperity in Egyptian history - called the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom.

The Theban Pharaoh Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty initiated the Middle Kingdom and reunified Egypt after the turmoil of the First Intermediate Period by finally ending the civil war between Thebes and Heracleopolis with a military expedition that was met with little resistance. Thereafter, he centralized powers towards himself and away from the nomarchs by establishing a force of bureaucrats who supervised the nomarchs and ensured that acted not as sovereign rulers but rather as governors who implemented the will of the Pharaoh. Amenemhat II, Senusret III, Queen Sobokneferu and Amenemhat IV were all Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty, also of the Middle Kingdom.

The founder of the Middle Kingdom was Mentuhotep II. This pharaoh conquered the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom. He is also credited with reunifying upper and lower Egypt.

Ahmose I is notable for leading the final campaign to expel the Hyksos from Egypt. The Egyptian rebellion against the Hyksos began during the reign of Ahmose I’s father and was completed by Ahmose I. Ahmose I subsequently founded the Eighteenth Dynasty which began the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history.

The Fifteenth Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Second Intermediate Period of Egyptian history. It was ruled by the Hyksos. The Hyksos, taking advantage of the chaotic political situation in Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom period, invaded northern Egypt and took control of most of the country. The Hyksos ruled for approximately a century before being driven out by an Egyptian uprising.

Queen Ahhotep ruled at the end of the Seventeenth Dynasty. She took over as queen regent upon the death of her husband who was likely also her brother, helped drive the Hyksos out of Egypt and launch the famed Eighteenth Dynasty, thereby restoring Egyptian power and was buried with all due honors, including the "Golden Flies of Valor" which were found in her coffin. Piye lead an army down the Nile and overthrew the ruling Libyans almost 1000 years later.