Social and Governmental Structures - Ancient History: Egypt

At least as early as the rule of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (and possibly much earlier), much of Egypt was divided into Nomes or “districts, provinces.” These Nomes were administered by Nomarchs or “governors.”

In ancient Egypt viziers were the chief ministers of Pharaohs. Their functionality changed over the course of Egyptian history, but they were in existence in one form or another during the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms.

Throughout ancient Egyptian history, women were largely prohibited from working in government. In spite of this, women in ancient Egypt generally enjoyed a far more elevated status than women elsewhere during this time period.

Although some Old Kingdom Pharaohs might have done any of these things (except renounce their divinity), the only practice that was common was the acquisition of four royal names. These names, like the Horus name and the Two Ladies name, were designed to reassert the Pharaoh’s divinity and to encourage the cult worship of the living Pharaoh.

Imhotep was an architect who lived during the reign of King Djoser in the third dynasty. He is most famous for leading the construction of the Step Pyramid (the first pyramid built in Egyptian history). He was renowned in ancient Egypt for the construction of the Step Pyramid and for the fact that he was the first architect to use stone instead of mudbrick. Stone has many advantages over mudbrick, not least of all longevity. Imhotep’s innovation has allowed some of ancient Egypt’s finest monuments to survive to this day.

During the First Intermediate Period, which lasts from 2181 to 2155 BCE, Egypt was divided into two competing kingdoms - Lower Egypt, led by the ruling dynasties of Heracleopolis, and Upper Egypt, led by the ruling dynasties of Thebes.

Amenemhet I (the first pharaoh to reign despite being outside the royal bloodline) first devised the concept of a co-regency. A co-regency occurs when two individuals reign together as monarchs, in simultaneous cooperation. During the twentieth year of his rule, Amenemhet I, fearing a rival claimant to the throne would arise after his death and challenge his dynastic succession, took radical action by appointing his oldest son, Senusret I, as his co-regent. Father and son reigned together for the next two decades, before Amenemhet I’s death. Afterwards, successive dynasties often continued the co-regency custom, mainly due to both its stabilizing effects upon the always-controversial line of succession and its allowance of smooth power transfers.

By the time of the Twelfth Dynasty, the Ancient Egyptian nobility had grown quite economically prosperous and politically well-connected. Naturally, this made the noble class a substantial potential threat to the reigning pharaonic dynasty, which could all too easily be overthrown by a cabal of one or more ambitious aristocratic families. In fact, a noble-led coup had overthrown the last Old Kingdom pharaoh. Although a few pharaohs had attempted to redress this power imbalance, their reforms had either been unsuccessful or quite short-lived. All this changed, however, upon the ascension of Senusret III to the throne. Senusret III was determined to end the noble’s dominance once and for all, and he did so, using a shrewdly crafted plan that involved the revocation of the traditional rights of the nobility and the closing of special courts. Senusret III’s policies broke the back of Ancient Egyptian aristocratic power; gradually, the wealth and political influence of the noble class drained away. A new middle class rose up in replacement, filled with craftsmen, tradesmen, and small farmers.

It is generally believed that women in ancient Egypt enjoyed substantial rights when compared to their contemporaries in other ancient societies. Women could own property, seek divorce, receive inheritance, pursue legal justice, and serve as priestesses.

The Eleventh Dynasty is the first ruling dynasty of the Middle Kingdom period of Egyptian history. The Eleventh Dynasty began during the First Intermediate Period. During the First Intermediate Period, there were two competing dynasties based in Thebes and Heracleopolis. The Eleventh Dynasty, based in Thebes, conquered their rivals in Heracleopolis and reunified Egypt, thus beginning the Middle Kingdom.

Marriage was very common in ancient Egyptian society and most people would have gotten married in their teenage years. The vast majority of Egyptians were monogamous, with the notable exception of many Egyptian rulers. Some Pharaohs would take multiple wives and then one of those would rule as queen or “chief wife.”

During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, it was very uncommon for women to participate in the Egyptian priesthood. The notable exception to this was the cult of Hathor. Hathor is one of the more important Goddesses in the ancient Egyptian pantheon. She is associated with motherhood, femininity, and love.

In ancient Egyptian society, property was generally passed down to the surviving members of the family after someone had died. An individual could specify, in their will, to whom they wished to leave their possessions. Women were more equal in Egyptian society than elsewhere and could both pass down and inherit property. Both sons and daughters expected an equal share of their parent’s wealth unless otherwise stipulated.

According to ancient Egyptian belief, a Pharaoh acquired divinity upon coronation. This reflects how the ancient Egyptians recognized the divinity of the office of the Pharaoh, but conceded that the ruler himself was still a human man. Some Egyptologists disagree with this contention and argue that Pharaohs only acquired divinity after their death. There is some debate about this matter, but general consensus is that the Pharaoh became a living deity when he was crowned.

Tomb raiding was common throughout ancient Egyptian history. Seeing as tomb raiding involved the desecration of a former ruler’s remains and the theft of this property, it is reasonable to infer that religious worship and adherence to social norms must not have been uniform in Egyptian society. After all, conventional Egyptian wisdom declared that a Pharaoh lived forever, as a God after his death, and therefore desecrating his tomb would naturally seem to incur divine retribution. For some people to have done this, means they must not have feared the consequences of their actions.

The Ancient Egyptian Empire experienced many eras of prosperity but by far, the Empire’s most illustrious golden era occurred during the New Kingdom (1552-1070 BCE). During this time period, Ancient Egypt thrived under the steady rule of a long line of pharaohs, each of whom protected the Empire’s borders from invasion, instituted crucial peace and trade alliances with the neighboring kingdoms, and embarked upon some of history’s most ambitious architectural projects (including the famed Temple of Karnak). While many esteemed pharaohs reigned during the New Kingdom, none ruled longer, commissioned more monuments, or are more enduringly remembered than Ramesses the Great (aka Ramesses II).

Ay was the chief advisor to Tutankhamun (and possibly one or two other, earlier, Pharaohs). He is presumed to have been the primary political leader in Egypt during Tutankhamun’s short reign, and he assumed the position of Pharaoh after the young boy’s death. He was the penultimate ruler of the eighteenth dynasty.

Narmer was the ruler who unified Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom, founding the First Dynasty. His true identity is a subject of debate, but most scholars identify him as the early Egyptian pharaoh Menes. His tomb was found in Abydos, and excavated.

The temple organizations of ancient Egypt owned a great deal of property and possessed immense power in their own right. When the Pharaoh’s authority was strong, the power of the priesthood tended to be suppressed; such as during the Old Kingdom and the early years of the New Kingdom. When the power of the Pharaoh was diminished, however, the priesthood tended to become more powerful; such as in the latter years of the New Kingdom and during the Third Intermediate Period.