Central dogma - AP Biology

As the name suggests, silent mutations are point mutations that actually have no visible effect on the protein. This is due to the degeneracy of the genetic code. Several codons actually insert the same amino acid. It is possible to mutate a codon so that it actually inserts the same amino acid. For example, if the codon UCU were mutated to UCG, it will still recruit the amino acid serine.

The other answers describe other types of mutations. Missense mutations are point mutations that result in the swapping of one amino acid for another. Nonsense mutations cause early termination. Frameshift mutations shift the reading frame of the codon sequence, severely altering the protein composition.

Abortive initiation is the process by which RNA polymerase starts short cycles of RNA synthesis. During abortive initiation, RNA polymerase releases short RNA strands before the initiation complex leaves the promoter sequence. Abortive initiation is a common process in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

An insertion mutation is a mutation due to an additional nucleotide base pair being added to a DNA sequence. In this case, a cytosine nucleotide has been inserted.

A substitution mutation occurs when a base pair is exchanged for a different base pair. In this case, a thymine nucleotide has been substituted for an adenine nucleotide.

An insertion mutation that occurs where an amount of nucleotides that is not a multiple of three is added to a DNA sequence will shift the reading frame.

A deletion mutation occurs when a base pair is removed from the DNA sequence. In this case, a cytosine nucleotide has been deleted.

Okazaki fragments are only produced, and subsequently joined together, in the lagging strand to allow for replication in the opposite direction as replication fork movement. The leading strand, however, allows for continual replication.

All other choices reflect aspects of DNA replication for both the leading and lagging strands.

Helicase, gyrase, and DNA polymerase are all used in the process of DNA replication, which takes place in the nucleus. Helicase is responsible for "unzipping" DNA, separating its two strands and unwinding the double-helix. Gyrase is responsible for relaxing the DNA strands and relieving tensions during unwinding. DNA polymerase synthesizes the the new DNA strands by recruiting nitrogenous bases.

Frameshift mutations involve the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide in a DNA sequence, changing the reading frame of the entire nucleotide sequence after the mutation. As a result, every subsequent codon is also affected, creating a change in the organism's phenotype.

Oftentimes, this results in a premature stop codon, which causes the protein product to be shorter than an unaffected polypeptide.

Point mutations replace a single nucleotide for a different one. This can change a certain codon to code for a different amino acid (missense), the same amino acid (silent), or lead to a stop codon (nonsense). Nonsense mutations are the most severe type of point mutation, as they will cause early termination of the protein.

This is really just a math equation. We need to double the amount of DNA each time it goes through a replication cycle.

Begin: 4

Cycle 1: 8

Cycle 2: 16

Cycle 3: 32

Cycle 4: 64

Cycle 5: 128

Cycle 6: 256

Cycle 7: 512

Cycle 8: 1024

Cycle 9: 2048

Cycle 10: 4096

After ten cycles, we would have 4096 copies from our original 4.

A shortcut calculation would be .

This is why PCR amplification is so effective.

The complementary strand will be going in the opposite direction (3'-5'). As a result, you will need to flip the direction in order for it to be complementary to the original strand. When pairing bases, remember that guanine (G) and cytosine (C) are paired with one another, and adenine (A) and thymine (T) are paired.

5'-ACTTGACT-3' Switch the direction.

3'-TCAGTTCA-5' Find the complement pairs.

5'-AGTCAAGT-3'

DNA polymerase always reads DNA strands in the 3'-to-5' direction, creating a complimentary 5'-to-3' strand. As a result, the parent strand oriented in the 3'-to-5' can be replicated seamlessly, but the strand that is unraveled in the 5'-to-3' direction will require multiple attachment points for DNA polymerase so that the whole strand can be replicated in the reverse direction.

These multiple segments of replication are called Okazaki fragments, and can only be found on the lagging strand, which is replicated more slowly.

Okazaki fragments are found on the lagging strand during replication. Because these fragments will not be attached together following strand synthesis, a protein is required to combine the fragments. DNA ligase will follow DNA polymerase on the lagging strand, and combine the fragments in order to create a complete strand.

DNA polymerase is responsible for recruiting and joining nucleotides in the 3'-to-5' direction, but cannot fuse Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. Primase lays down an RNA primer to recruit DNA polymerase prior to replication. Helicase unwinds the DNA helix in order to expose the template strands. RNA polymerase is involved in transcription, and plays no active role in DNA replication.

Single-strand binding protein (SSB) binds the newly separated DNA strands to ensure that it does not reanneal during replication. This keeps the strands separate so that replication can occur.

All of the other answers describe the functions of other proteins. Primase synthesizes the RNA primers, which helps to recruit DNA polymerase. The structural basis for the replication of the leading and lagging strands ensures that replication follows the same rate on both strands.

DNA topoisomerases are the cell's solution to the "winding" problem. The double helical nature of DNA results in tension during the replication process that would interfere with the process. DNA topoisomerases cut the phosphate backbone to relieve this tension, and allow DNA to replicate properly.

The primary function of the ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize proteins for transport to the cell exterior or extracellular matrix. These ribosomes produce polypeptides that are packaged into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus and transported to the membrane. The vesicle then fuses with the membrane, either releasing proteins out of the cell or incorporating them into the cell membrane.

Nuclear ribosomes synthesize replication and transcription proteins into the nucleus, while cytoplasmic ribosomes produce cytoplasmic proteins.

Recombinant DNA technology involves combining genes from two sources, such as different species, into a single molecule.

Applying restriction enzymes to DNA will cleave the DNA into fragments, which can be isolated for specific genes. Ligase can then be used to fuse the fragments together into a full recombinant gene.

Topoisomerase is responsible for relieving tension in the winding of the DNA helix. DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA from individual nucleotides, but would not be useful in fusing two types of DNA together.

Polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, is commonly used in laboratories to increase the amount of a small biological sample. Given a small sample of DNA, the process replicates the sample to make numerous identical copies. These copies can then be studied directly, used to make protein products, or incorporated into genetic modification.

Other laboratory techniques can be used to achieve the results given by the other answer options.