Organs and Organ Systems - Biology

Filtration occurs in the renal corpuscle, which is composed of the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus filters the blood, resulting in the filtrate, which will then go through the tubules. The proximal and distal convoluted tubules are primarily involved in solute reabsorption, and the loop of Henle helps concentrate the urine.

Red bone marrow is found in the epiphyses, or ends of long bones. It is the site of hematopoiesis, or red blood cell development.

Yellow bone marrow is primarily composed of fat. Osteons are the functional units of bone, and house the cells that build and break down the bony matrix. Cartilage is found on the articular surfaces of bone, and helps provide support for joints.

The skeletal system has a variety of functions, including protecting internal organs, storing minerals and energy molecules, and assisting in movement.

The production of heat, however, is a function of the muscular system.

As an action potential is essentially an electrical current, it makes sense for it to open voltage-gated channels. Specifically, voltage-gated calcium channels are opened to allow calcium ions to flow into the cell and bind to synaptic vesicles.

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for stress responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for resting responses. The sympathetic nervous system causes increased heart rate, pupil dilation, suppressed digestion, inhibited salivation, and dilated bronchi.

Progesterone ("pro-gestation") is responsible for the maintenance of a pregnancy. Initially, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone in preparation for pregnancy. Then, after fertilization, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is released which causes the corpus luteum to keep secreting progesterone. The placenta takes over it's function after 6 weeks gestation.

Eggs, or oocytes, are produced in the ovaries. During ovulation, the egg is released from the ovary into the fallopian tube. If fertilized, the egg transitions into a zygote and is implanted into the uterus for gestation and development.

The spleen is involved in filtering the blood and lymph, and is not involved in reproduction.

The epididymis is responsible for storing sperm in order for it to mature. Upon ejaculation, it will be propelled into the vas deferens and out of the urethral opening.

The sodium potassium-pump is used in order to establish the negative resting potential in neurons. Since both sodium and potassium ions are positively charged, there needs to be more ions leaving the cell compared to ions entering. The pump accomplishes this by pumping three sodium ions out of the cell, while pumping two potassium ions into the cell. This loss of positive charge inside the cell results in the negative resting potential of neurons.

Thank about the net transfer of ions. Three positive sodium ions out of the cell for every two positive potassium ions into the cell is the same as one positive ion leaving the cell. When positive ions leave, the inside of the cell becomes more negative, helping the cell reach its resting potential of around –70mV.

In the beginning of an action potential voltage-gated sodium channels begin to open, allowing sodium ions to rush into the cell. This influx of positive ions results in a change in the polarity of the cell, making the voltage become positive inside the cell. This process is called depolarization.

Hyperpolarization comes after depolarization, and is caused by potassium ions leaving the cell interior. The removal of these positive ions causes the cell to become more negative than the resting potential.

Repolarization is the final process to return the cell to its resting potential. The sodium-potassium pump brings potassium ions back into the cell and removes the sodium ions, returning the cell to its normal resting state.

Action potentials are electrical signals transmitted by neurons. When a neuron is stimulated, a signal is transmitted down the axon. This signal is the action potential.

An action potential in a neuron can help to stimulate a muscle to contract, but the muscle itself will not conduct an action potential.

The axon is wrapped in fatty bundles called myelin sheaths that promote fast transmission of an electrical signal. The other structures listed here are not myelinated.

The refractory period occurs when the cell repolarizes/hyperpolzarizes beyond the resting potential; that is, the membrane potential drops to a value more negative than when it is at rest. This prevents the firing of another action potential immediately after one has been fired. The other values represent the resting potential (), the threshold (), and values that are more positive, and are therefore incorrect.

As an action potential begins, there's a rapid influx of sodium in to cell, causing the cell's membrane potential to rapidly increase, depolarizing the cell. Once the cell has reached its action potential peak, the sodium channels begin to close. This closing activates the potassium channels. These channels allow potassium to leave the cell. Since potassium is a positive ion, as it leaves, the cell's membrane potential becomes more negative, repolarizing. The slight dip in the action potential curve, labeled as hyperpolarization, is result of the potassium channels lagging to close, and potassium loss is "overshot". As a result, too much potassium lost from the cell will cause the cell's potential to become more negative relative to its normal potential.

Action potentials are largely due to the movements of potassium and sodium across a membrane. While other ions and neurotransmitters can affect action potential firing, the movements of these two ions have the greatest effect on a neuron firing.

The most basic anatomy for a neuron involves three structures: a soma, a dendrite, and an axon. The dendrite receives an electrical impulse and sends it to the cell body, or soma. The axon will then send the action potential towards its synapse with another neuron. The axon hillock is a wider region of the axon where the soma and axon join together.

While every neuron will have only one soma and one axon, some neurons have several dendrites. This means that a neuron can receive information from several different locations through different dendrites, but can only send it in one direction along the single axon.

The nervous system has two major divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can then be divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

General: Central and Peripheral

Peripheral: Somatic and Autonomic

Autonomic: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "rest and digest" functions of the body. The sympathetic nervous system is associated with "fight or flight" responses in the body. Increased blood flow to skeletal muscles is a common result of the sympathetic nervous system being stimulated, not the parasympathetic nervous system.

The vagus nerve is responsible for slowing down the heart rate. It also increases digestive activity. Knowing this, we can conclude that the vagus nerve has a "rest and digest" function in the body. This means that it is part of the parasympathetic nervous system.

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for stress responses, or "fight or flight." The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, while the autonomic nervous system is involuntary. Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions fall under the autonomic umbrella. The central nervous system includes only the brain and spinal cord.