Pharmacology - NCLEX-PN

All are true except for the use of lactated Ringer's this may cause a hemolytic reaction, only normal saline 0.9% is utilized.

Levodopa (L-DOPA), a common treatment for Parkinson's disease, is generally given in combination with carbidopa or another peripheral dopa-decarboxylase inhibitor. This is because levodopa alone will stimulate dopamine receptors in the GI tract and the chemotrigger receptor zone (CTZ) in the brain, resulting in nausea, vomiting and anorexia. A peripheral dopa-decarboxylase inhibitor prevents levodopa from being prematurely converted into dopamine in the adrenal glands or other peripheral tissues.

Adalimumab is a tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) inhibitor. This class of drugs suppresses response to TNF-alpha, a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine. Inhibition of folic acid metabolism is the method of action of methotrexate. Reversible inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is the mechanism of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen. Rheumatoid arthritis drugs such as rituximab, and almost all drugs that end in -mab, including adalimumab function as monoclonal antibodies.

The correct answer is "insomnia," as steroids are known to increase patients' vigilance and energy levels, thereby frequently making it difficult for patients to fall asleep and/or stay asleep while taking their steroid medication. The other choices are incorrect. Decreased appetite is not a side effect of taking steroid medications. Patients on steroids often have increased appetite. Hyponatremia and hyperkalemia both are not side effects of taking steroid medications. Hypernatremia and hypokalemia are more common side effects of steroids. Hypertension, rather than hypotension is a known side effect of steroid use.

Aminoglycoside antibiotics are used to treat Gram negative bacteria. They have not been shown to be effective against Gram positive bacteria and are not antifungal. Recall the major difference between the Gram negative and positive bacteria are their cell wall composition; Gram negative have a small proportion of peptidoglycan and a high proportion of lipopolysaccharide, while Gram negative bacteria have a large proportion of peptidoglycan.

The only aminoglycoside antibiotic among those listed is streptomycin. Other examples of aminoglycosides include tobramycin and gentamicin. All aminoglycosides either end in -mycin or -micin. However, this suffix is not exclusive to aminoglycosides. It is also seen in the macrolides: erythromycin and azithromycin and both macrolides, and in lincosamides such as clindamycin.

Aminoglycoside antibiotics such as streptomycin and gentamicin have been associated with vestibular toxicity and hearing loss. Aminoglycosides remain in inner ear fluids longer than serum and can have a latent ototoxic effect, causing hearing loss even after the antibiotic has been discontinued. None of the other antibiotics listed are associated with ototoxicity.

Ciprofloxacin belongs to the fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics. Other antibiotics in this class include norfloxacin, levofloxacin, and nadifloxacin.

Fluoroquinolones (the most commonly prescribed of which is ciprofloxacin) carry a risk of all of the following adverse effects: sudden tendon rupture or tendonitis, hepatotoxicity or liver failure, seizures, and permanent peripheral neuropathy. Other adverse effects include C_lostridium difficile_ associated diarrhea, bone marrow suppression, Steven-Johnson's Syndrome, tremors, and psychosis. The majority of these adverse effects are seen in higher numbers in children and the elderly.

Tetracycline antibiotics are contraindicated in pregnant women and small children due to their tendency to irreversibly stain developing teeth. They can also affect fetal bone growth and so are pregnancy category D (known incidence and risk of fetal harm).

Of the antibiotics listed, amoxicillin is the only one considered safe in pregnancy. Doxycycline and gentamicin are both pregnancy category D (known to cause fetal harm). Levofloxacin is category C (fetal harm can not be ruled out).

All of the drugs listed frequently cause C_. difficile_ overgrowth and C_. difficile_ associated diarrhea except vancomycin, which is often used as a treatment for persistent C_. difficile_ infections.

Penicillins belong to a larger class of antibiotics known as beta-lactams. These antibiotics inhibit cell-wall synthesis and are exclusively used to treat Gram positive bacteria. They are not effective against Gram negative bacteria or fungi.

Fluoroquinolones are considered to be the treatment of choice for E . coli infections due to their effectiveness in relieving diarrhea and minimal serious adverse effects. Aminoglycosides and beta-lactam antibiotics may also be effective, as a second choice.

Gentamycin, an antibiotic and aminoglycoside, inhibits protein synthesis of gram-negative bacteria. It treats severe systemic infections. It may cause ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity, as well as anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Diaphoresis is not a common side effect of gentamycin.

Methisazone blocks synthesis of viral mRNA and proteins. This is especially evident in pox viruses. Methisazone has been used to treat small pox.

The most critical safety information a patient must know when initiating beta blocker therapy is that they can not abruptly stop taking their beta blocker, due to the risk of rebound hypertension. A beta blocker would be more likely to cause bradycardia and a depressed effect than anxiety and tachycardia. Beta blockers are not associated with any type of esophagitis and they are not fat soluble, thus it is not crucial to eat a fatty meal with the drug in order to improve absorption.

All of these are possible side effects of calcium channel blockers, but the most common side effect is edema. Calcium channel blockers decrease blood pressure by hindering the influx of calcium into myocardial cells. They may also increase the diameter of blood vessels, which always results in decreased blood pressure.

Carvedilol is a non-selective beta-adrenoceptor and alpha-adrenergic blocker. Lisinopril is an ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitor. Clonidine is an alpha-adrenergic agonist, and amiodarone is a sodium-channel blocker.